Animal Feed Formulation Level 2

Who it is for. People who have finished Animal Feed Formulation (Level 1), or who can show the same skills. National Proficiency II covers varied work, mostly routine, under limited supervision.

Bridge from Level 1: what you already know

Level 1 did not cover reading requirement tables, converting them into percentages, the Pearson square, simultaneous equations, spreadsheet least-cost, phase feeding for persistency, premix choice, quality tests, mycotoxins, feed budgets or marketing. Level 2 covers all of these.

How the module works

Each unit has learning outcomes, performance criteria, the range and the evidence your assessor needs. You are judged Competent or Not Yet Competent. About 70% of the time is practical, following CTVET's Oil Palm programme split of about 30% school and 70% workplace.

Honesty rule. Numbers marked example were invented to teach the method. Numbers marked derived were calculated from a cited table. Where a Ghana fact could not be found, the book says not verified. Doses of medicines are never given: ask a veterinarian.

Three rules for every ration in this book. (1) Use local ingredients first. Import only what local feed cannot supply, such as a vitamin-mineral premix, synthetic amino acids and a toxin binder. (2) Never cut cost by using something that lowers performance, such as too much cassava, cottonseed cake or fibre. Stay under the inclusion limits. (3) Check the arithmetic twice. Every worked example here was checked by a computer script.

Competency standard

Range. Poultry, pigs, sheep, cattle and horses. Evidence. Calculation sheets; oral questions; logbook.

Two ways a requirement is written

A breeder guide may give a nutrient as a percent of the feed (for example crude protein 17.27%) or as grams a bird needs each day (for example calcium 4.00 g). To use a daily need you must know how much feed the bird eats. Divide the grams by the feed eaten.

Worked example (derived). Hy-Line says a young laying hen needs 4.00 g of calcium a day. If she eats 105 g of feed, then 4.00 ÷ 105 = 0.0381 = 3.81% calcium in the feed. The same hen eating only 95 g needs 4.00 ÷ 95 = 4.21%. A hen that eats less needs a denser feed. Lohmann gives separate columns for 100, 105, 110 and 115 g a day for this reason.

Pig tables work the same way. The pig tables say they assume a set feed intake, so if intake is lower, raise the nutrient concentration.

Other words you must read correctly

• Total or digestible. Breeder guides now give digestible amino acids and say diets should be formulated on them. Total amino acid figures only fit maize-and-soya diets. Ingredient tables below give total amino acids, so your answers are a close guide, not the last word.
• ME, DE and NE. These are energy values for different animals. Poultry use ME (metabolisable energy) in kcal per kg. Pigs use DE or ME. Ruminants use ME in MJ per kg of dry matter. 1 MJ = 238.8 kcal (derived: this is the conversion used to build the ingredient table in this book, from Source: Feedipedia Maize). For example 11.7 MJ/kg is about 2,794 kcal/kg, which Lohmann prints as 2800.
• As fed or dry matter (DM). Fresh feed holds water. Fresh brewers' grains are only 24.9% dry matter. CP as fed = CP in DM × DM% ÷ 100. Fresh brewers' grains have 6.4% crude protein as fed, which is 6.4 ÷ 0.249 = 25.7% of the dry matter (derived). Ruminant requirements are written on a dry-matter basis. Poultry and pig requirements in this book are written as fed.
• Available phosphorus. About 75% of the phosphorus in cereals is bound as phytate and little is available to poultry and pigs. Animal and mineral sources such as dicalcium phosphate are mostly available. So a ration can look rich in total phosphorus and still be short of available phosphorus.

Key requirement tables

Layers: Lohmann Brown-Lite diets at 105 g intake (a brown commercial layer; White-egg hens differ)

All layer phases are given at ME 2800 kcal/kg (11.7 MJ). The source marks these values for a recheck before print (see the Unit 3 flag).

Broilers: Ross (live weight under 2.0 kg)

Ross says crude protein is "not a requirement per se": it is what can be reached in a maize-soya diet. The amino acids are what the bird needs.

Growing pigs (NRC 2012 values printed by the Merck Veterinary Manual; ad lib feed, 90% dry matter)

The Merck page labels the lysine row "total lysine"; the NRC 2012 book is the authority, so call these "NRC 2012 guide values".

Ruminants need dry-matter intake, crude protein, energy, fibre and minerals. Tables are in Unit 4.

Ingredient table: what is in the sack

All values below are Feedipedia averages read on 8 October 2026. As-fed columns were converted by the method above (derived). Ghana-grown samples differ. The Feedipedia maize row uses Sub-Saharan Africa data.

Mineral and additive sources (not in the table above). Limestone is calcitic, 36-38% calcium; dolomitic limestone with 5% or more magnesium must not be used for poultry. Seashells and oyster shell are 95-99% calcium carbonate, about 37% calcium, and carry no phosphorus. Dicalcium (bicalcium) phosphate has 24% Ca and 20% P. Salt is 39.3% sodium and 60.7% chlorine (derived from atomic weights). Feed-grade L-lysine HCl is about 98.5% pure and gives 78-79% lysine.

Where to buy in Ghana (asking prices, 8 October 2026, negotiable). Maize GH¢340 per 100 kg (GH¢3.40/kg, Gomoa West); white maize national average GHS 3,141 per tonne in August 2026; wheat bran GH¢110 per 25 kg (GH¢4.40/kg, Accra); rice bran GH¢110-120 per 50 kg (about GH¢2.20/kg, Ejura and Oyibi); palm kernel cake GH¢100 per 50 kg in Tema (GH¢2.00/kg) and GH¢80 in Takoradi, unit not stated; soybean meal GH¢385-430 per 50 kg (GH¢7.70-8.60/kg, Ejisu and Accra); oyster shell powder GH¢95 per 50 kg (Sege), about GH¢1.90/kg; fish meal GH¢360, unit not stated; groundnut oil cake GH¢680, unit not stated. Prices for cottonseed cake, copra cake, dicalcium phosphate, salt, lysine, blood meal and bone meal with a stated unit were not found; ask the dealer for a price per bag and write the bag weight down.

The nutrition maths you will use every day

1. Weighted mix. Nutrient in the mix = Σ (kg of ingredient × its nutrient %) ÷ total kg. Example (example numbers): 60 kg maize + 25 kg soybean meal + 10 kg wheat bran + 5 kg oyster shell. Crude protein = (60×7.2 + 25×46.3 + 10×15.1 + 0) ÷ 100 = (432 + 1157.5 + 151) ÷ 100 = 17.4%. Calcium = (60×0.04 + 25×0.33 + 10×0.12 + 5×37) ÷ 100 = 1.97%. Check: the weights add up to 100.
2. Per bag. To turn a recipe made for 100 kg into a 50 kg bag, halve every weight. A 50 kg bag of a ration with 65.15 kg maize per 100 kg takes 32.6 kg maize.
3. Ratios. Calcium:phosphorus. Pigs should keep total Ca:total P between 1.25:1 and 1:1. Horses need about 1.5:1, never under 1:1.
4. Salt to sodium. Sodium needs of 0.15-0.23% (layers and broilers) or 0.10-0.40% (pigs) mean 0.3-0.5% salt in the feed (derived from the 39.3% sodium in salt; Source: Ross Broiler Nutrition Spec 2022).
5. Synthetic amino acid. A ration short of lysine by 0.087% needs 0.087 ÷ 0.78 = 0.11 kg of L-lysine HCl per 100 kg of feed (derived).
6. Cost per kg of nutrient. Price ÷ (nutrient % ÷ 100). Maize at GH¢3.40 with 7.2% protein costs 3.40 ÷ 0.072 = GH¢47.2 per kg of protein. Soybean meal at GH¢7.70 with 46.3% protein costs GH¢16.6. Rice bran at GH¢2.20 with 13.3% costs GH¢16.5; palm kernel cake at GH¢2.00 with 15.2% costs GH¢13.2 (all derived, example prices). Protein is cheaper from the meals than from maize, but a meal's value also depends on energy, amino acids and its limit (Unit 2).

Competency standard

Range. Poultry and pigs in detail; ruminant concentrates and a horse check. Evidence. Worked sheets; spreadsheet file; oral questions.

Method 1: The Pearson square (two ingredients, one nutrient)

Use it when two ingredients must give one target, usually crude protein. Put the target in the middle. Subtract diagonally, always the smaller from the larger. Add the parts. Each part divided by the total, times 100, is the percent of that ingredient. A known example: a 14% crude protein mix between soybean meal (45%) and corn (10%) is 88.57% corn and 11.43% soybean meal.

Worked example 1: a layer protein base (example; maize 7.2% and soybean meal 46.3%, target 15.0%).

maize 7.2 \                    / 46.3 - 15.0 = 31.3 parts maize
             target 15.0
soya  46.3 /                    \ 15.0 -  7.2 =  7.8 parts soya
                                 total 39.1 parts

Maize = 31.3 ÷ 39.1 × 100 = 80.05%. Soya = 7.8 ÷ 39.1 × 100 = 19.95%. Check: 0.8005×7.2 + 0.1995×46.3 = 5.76 + 9.24 = 15.00. The square sets protein only. It says nothing about energy, lysine, methionine or minerals.

Worked example 2: a pig grower 25-50 kg. Target crude protein 19.3% (NRC guide above). Soya = (19.3 − 7.2) ÷ (46.3 − 7.2) = 30.95%; maize 69.05%. This gives lysine of 0.69×0.21 + 0.31×2.87 = 1.03%, which is short of the 1.12% pigs need. The short part is 0.087%, or 0.11 kg of L-lysine HCl per 100 kg (derived). A better plan is 17.4% protein with synthetic lysine, below.

Worked example 3: a concentrate for sheep or cattle. To reach 18% crude protein from maize (7.2%) and groundnut cake (45.3%): groundnut cake = (18 − 7.2) ÷ (45.3 − 7.2) = 28.35%, maize 71.65%, check 18.00. For lambs, creep feed needs 18-20% crude protein with natural protein only and no urea. A dairy supplement at 16% from maize bran (10.6%) and dehulled cottonseed meal (41.5%) needs 17.48% cake and 82.52% bran. The cake is within the 15% cattle ceiling only if you count the whole diet, and cottonseed cake lowers fertility in breeding stock and is not for calves.

Two groups. When you use several ingredients, make a mix of the energy ingredients (for example 70% maize + 30% wheat bran, protein 9.57%, derived) and a mix of the protein ingredients, then use the square between the two mixes. The square still balances one nutrient.

Method 2: Simultaneous equations (two unknowns, two facts)

Use them when you need two nutrients from two ingredients. A known example solves X + Y = 100 and 0.089X + 0.360Y = 16.0 to give 73.8 corn and 26.2 supplement.

Worked example 4: calcium and available phosphorus in a layer ration (example). The base of 64 maize + 22 soybean meal + 1 full-fat soya (87 kg) supplies calcium 0.101% and available phosphorus 0.077%. We want calcium 3.90% and available phosphorus 0.42% (Phase 1 target, Source: Lohmann Brown-Lite Guide). Let x = kg limestone (36% Ca) and y = kg dicalcium phosphate (24% Ca, 20% P) per 100 kg.

• Phosphorus: 0.20 y = 0.42 − 0.077 = 0.343, so y = 1.715 kg.
• Calcium: 0.36 x + 0.24 × 1.715 = 3.90 − 0.101 = 3.799, so 0.36 x = 3.387 and x = 9.41 kg.
• Check: calcium 0.101 + 0.36×9.41 + 0.24×1.715 = 3.90; available P 0.077 + 0.20×1.715 = 0.42.

(Source for limestone and dicalcium phosphate values: Feedipedia Limestone; Feedipedia Manufactured minerals.)

A complete checked layer ration (example)

Layer, Phase 1 (computed by script; Lohmann target in brackets):

Result (derived, with Ghana maize at 7.2% protein): crude protein 15.23% (target 17.27), ME 2,604 kcal/kg (target 2,800), calcium 3.89% (3.90), available phosphorus 0.42% (0.42), lysine 0.79% (target total 0.79), methionine 0.37% (0.39), methionine plus cystine 0.64% (0.71).

Lessons. (1) Calcium and phosphorus are on target. (2) With Ghana maize the energy is about 7% below Lohmann's 2800, so hens may eat about 7% more, near 112 g a day (derived). (3) Crude protein is not the target: the amino acids are, so add more methionine (about 0.2%) or fish meal to reach 0.71 methionine plus cystine. (4) Reaching 2800 kcal needs a fat source; the energy value of palm oil was not verified here. A ration with 9.4 kg of limestone is mostly fine powder, so split it: see the coarse limestone rules in Unit 3.

A broiler grower: where a quick recipe falls short (example)

Maize 54.27, soybean meal 26.00, full-fat soya 16.00, limestone 1.00, dicalcium phosphate 1.60, salt 0.35, DL-methionine 0.28, L-lysine HCl 0.20, premix 0.30 = 100 kg. Computed: crude protein 21.58%, ME 2,893 kcal/kg, calcium 0.90%, available phosphorus 0.42%, lysine 1.37% total, methionine plus cystine 0.95%. Ross wants ME 3050, digestible lysine 1.18 (about 1.30 total) and calcium 0.75. The recipe is 160 kcal short of energy (needs an oil) and too high in calcium: cut limestone to about 0.6 kg. A formula is a draft until every line is checked.

Method 3: Least-cost on a Google Sheets spreadsheet

By hand you can only balance one or two nutrients. A spreadsheet can balance many at once and find the cheapest mix. The SUMPRODUCT function multiplies matching cells of two ranges and adds the products, which is exactly the "weighted mix" in Unit 1. The free Solver add-on from Frontline Systems, installed from the Google Workspace Marketplace, does linear programming for models of up to about 200 variables and 100 constraints. The model is solved on Frontline's servers, so your data leaves your sheet. The limits come from a 2014 announcement and may have changed.

Set-up (the layout):

1. Column A: ingredient names. Column B: price per kg (GH¢). Columns C to H: the nutrient values (CP %, DE kcal/kg, lysine %, calcium %, total phosphorus %). Column I: kg per 100 kg (the cells Solver will change). Start with 10 in each cell.
2. A total row: =SUM(I2:I11) which must equal 100.
3. A nutrient row for each nutrient: =SUMPRODUCT(I2:I11, C2:C11)/100 (for crude protein), the same with D, E, F, G.
4. A cost cell: =SUMPRODUCT(I2:I11, B2:B11)/100 gives GH¢ per kg of feed.
5. A column J of lowest and K of highest limits (for example 0 and 10 for rice bran; 0.35 and 0.5 for salt).
6. In Solver: Objective the cost cell, minimise; change I2:I11; constraints total = 100, each nutrient row ≥ its requirement, each ingredient between J and K; method linear (Simplex) LP.

Worked example 5: pig grower 25-50 kg (computed by script, example prices). Requirements: DE ≥ 3,300 kcal/kg, crude protein ≥ 17.0%, lysine ≥ 1.12%, calcium ≥ 0.66%, total phosphorus ≥ 0.56%. Limits (course judgement from Feedipedia): rice bran at most 10% (fresh only), palm kernel meal at most 15%, wheat bran at most 15%, dicalcium phosphate at least 1.0% to make sure phosphorus comes from an available source, salt 0.35-0.5%, premix 0.3%. Prices (GH¢/kg): maize 3.40, soybean meal 7.70, wheat bran 4.40, rice bran 2.20, palm kernel cake 2.00, oyster shell 1.90. Example prices for dicalcium phosphate 12.00, salt 2.00, L-lysine HCl 60.00 and premix 25.00 (no Ghana price with a unit was found).

The least-cost answer, rounded to a practical recipe:

Result (derived): crude protein 16.99%, DE 3,299 kcal/kg, lysine 1.13%, calcium 0.66%, total phosphorus 0.685%. Cost GH¢4.44 per kg, so about GH¢222 per 50 kg bag (example prices).

Reading the result. The energy requirement was the one that held the answer back: the cheap fibrous ingredients (palm kernel cake, rice bran) are limited by their energy and by the caps. Maize and soybean meal cannot be dropped. The simple plan of Worked example 2 (69.05 maize and 30.95 soya, no minerals) already costs about GH¢4.73 per kg for the two ingredients alone (derived, example prices), so the spreadsheet saves money and adds minerals and lysine.

Price test. Change one price and re-solve. If soybean meal rises from GH¢7.70 to GH¢8.60, the recipe above did not change and the cost rose to about GH¢4.64 per kg (derived). If maize rises from GH¢3.40 to GH¢4.40, the recipe also did not change in this model and the cost rose to about GH¢5.00 per kg (derived). The caps and the requirements, not the prices, were holding the mix in place. Always set a lower and upper limit for every ingredient, or the spreadsheet will pick a cheap ingredient that harms the animal.

Ruminants and horses on the spreadsheet

For ruminants, work on dry matter and add the forage first, because the animal must eat forage. A rule of thumb for smallholder dairy cows in the tropics is about 0.5 kg of concentrate per kg of milk; more than 1:1 risks acidosis when fibre is scarce. Horses: 500 kg for maintenance needs 20 g calcium, 14 g phosphorus and 630 g protein. Eight kg of Guinea grass hay (calcium 0.41%, phosphorus 0.27%, protein 8.2%) supplies 32.8 g calcium, 21.6 g phosphorus and 656 g protein, a ratio of 1.52:1, so good hay already meets maintenance. Adding 2 kg of wheat bran pushes the ratio to 0.86:1 (below 1:1, wrong). For light work add 0.5-1 kg bran plus limestone, not 2 kg (derived, example).

Competency standard

Range. Layers (rearing and laying), broilers, broiler breeders. Evidence. Written programme; oral questions; logbook.

Layers: rearing the pullet

Lohmann gives four feeds for pullets and changes feed by body weight, not by age.

• Starter is fed until the standard body weight is reached or when daily intake is low. Developer has less nutrient density and more crude fibre (5-6%), which helps gut development and appetite at the start of lay. With a classic maize-soya diet you can hardly reach 5-6% fibre; wheat bran and rice bran are the local fibre sources.
• Pre-layer feed (about 2.0-2.5% calcium) starts about 2 weeks before the first eggs, runs about 10 days, at most 1 kg per bird, and is changed to layer feed before 5% production. Hy-Line says do not feed pre-lay before 15 weeks and not after the first egg because it has too little calcium for laying.
• Pullet targets. Brown pullets (Lohmann): 1,364 g at 17 weeks eating 73 g a day; 1,596 g at 20 weeks eating 86 g. White-egg Hy-Line W-36: livability to 17 weeks 97%, feed to 17 weeks 5.36-5.94 kg, body weight 1190-1250 g at 17 weeks. Which strain dominates in Ghana was not verified; use the table for the strain on your farm.
• Coarse mash for chicks and pullets: sieve passes 19% at 0.5 mm, 40% at 1.0 mm, 75% at 1.5 mm, 90% at 2.0 mm; no particle over 3 mm in starter and 5 mm in later feeds. Very fine feed lowers intake.
• Grit is not a must but is recommended when whole grain is fed.

Layers: phase feeding for lay persistency

Use the Unit 1 layer table. Why phases? A hen needs more calcium and less protein and phosphorus as she ages. Hy-Line gives available calcium as grams a bird a day: weeks 18-32 4.00 g; 33-55 4.15 g; 56-72 4.30 g; 73-85 4.45 g; 86 and older 4.60 g. At 105 g of feed these are 3.81%, 3.95%, 4.10%, 4.24%, 4.38% (derived). Phosphorus falls from 447 to 344 mg a bird a day over the same ages. Hy-Line says hens with outstanding production need more calcium and less phosphorus as they age, and if production stays high past the usual age you move to the next phase's level.

What keeps lay long ("persistency"). The guides name: body weight at the start of lay and flock uniformity of 85% or better; changing calcium and phosphorus by phase; preventing feed-intake drops in heat; good water; and daily checks of feed and water use. Brown-Lite goals: 94.9% lay at 30 weeks, 89.2% at 56 weeks and 81.0% at 73 weeks, with daily feed of 106-109 g. Never restrict feed: Lohmann says there is no danger in wasting feed by supplying it ad libitum, but a real danger in restricting birds.

Quality eggs: shell, size and yolk

• Shell. Give calcium as both fine and coarse limestone or oyster shell. Lohmann: fine (0-0.5 mm) 30% and coarse (1.5-3.5 mm) 70% in pre-peak and phase 1; 25% and 75% in phases 2-3; 15% and 85% in phase 4 onward; coarse limestone can be partly replaced by oyster shell. Hy-Line fine:coarse is 40:60 at 18-32 weeks, 35:65 at 33-55, 30:70 at 56-72, 25:75 after 73. Teaching explanation, not from a source: coarse pieces stay in the gizzard overnight and release calcium while the shell is made, while fine powder dissolves quickly.
• Avoid dolomitic limestone for poultry.
• Water. Lohmann warns that too much salt in drinking water can cause lasting damage to shell quality, and hard water with high dissolved solids can damage kidneys. Hy-Line says magnesium up to 500 ppm may help shell quality in aged hens.
• Egg size. Levers: body weight and frame size at the start of lay; crude protein, methionine and linoleic acid in the feed; feed texture, feeding time and trough level; and house temperature. Hy-Line adds fat and energy, with methionine plus cystine. Hy-Line W-36 egg weight is 58.5 g at 32 weeks and 63.3 g at 70 weeks.
• Yolk colour and quality. Yellow maize gives yellow pigment. Cottonseed cake can cause pink yolks from cyclopropenoids and needs added iron over 5%, so keep it at 5% or none for layers. Ochratoxin lowers shell quality and production in poultry.

Heat, intake and lighting

• Heat. For each 0.5 °C above or below 22 °C, subtract or add about 1.8 kcal a bird a day. Water use rises: about 1.8-2 parts water to 1 of feed when comfortable, about 5:1 above 30 °C. At 109 g feed and 5:1 a hen drinks about 545 ml (derived). Hy-Line says a pre-peak diet with reduced energy can help stimulate intake in hot climates, and raising vitamins and trace minerals by 30% in pre-peak can help when intake is low. Vitamin C of 100-200 mg per kg of feed may help in heat stress.
• Lighting links to feed. Never increase hours of light in rearing and never decrease them in production. Lohmann's windowless-house plan steps down to 10 hours from week 6 to 17, then rises to 16 hours from about week 22. Hy-Line light-stimulates at the ideal body weight and 85% uniformity. Inference, not from a Ghana source: Ghana is about 5-11° N, so natural day length is near 12 hours all year; an open house needs artificial light to reach 15-16 hours in lay, and pullets must not see rising natural light. No Ghana lighting guide was found.
• Beak treatment is recommended by Lohmann in open houses where light cannot be controlled, subject to local welfare rules. Causes of feather pecking include too much light, unbalanced feed, poor ventilation, overstocking and boredom.

Broilers

Ross feeds (Unit 1 table) are a starter, grower and finisher; a second finisher is used for heavy birds. Choline is 1700 / 1600 / 1500 mg per kg. Added trace minerals per kg are copper 16 mg, iodine 1.25 mg, iron 20 mg, manganese 120 mg, selenium 0.30 mg and zinc 120 mg. That copper is why broiler feed or premix must never go to sheep. Ross notes that feed-grade amino acids or more complex diets may be needed to reach the listed levels, that starter should be crumbled or small-particle, and that a withdrawal feed should be used to meet medicine withdrawal times.

Cobb 500 weights and feed: 570 g at 14 days (cumulative feed 588 g); 1,116 g at 21 days (1,320 g); 1,783 g at 28 days (2,359 g); 2,521 g at 35 days (3,635 g); 3,278 g at 42 days (5,100 g, cumulative FCR 1.555). Cobb says these are targets and performance varies by country. Ghanaian farmers commonly sell broilers at 5-6 weeks, so use the 35-42 day rows.

Local limits for broilers (course caps, judgement from Feedipedia). Wheat bran 10%, rice bran 10%, cassava 5% (never fresh unprocessed peel), palm kernel meal 15%, cottonseed cake 10%, copra cake 5%, groundnut cake 10% (test for aflatoxin), fish meal 3-6%, blood meal 2-4%, molasses 5%.

Broiler breeders (parent stock)

Breeder hens are restricted: feed per day is set by a body-weight profile, not ad libitum. Ross 308 female diets:

Energy is 2800 kcal/kg for all. Males have their own feed from 175 days: crude protein 12.0%, digestible lysine 0.35%, calcium 0.70%. The calcium rise with age and the fall of phosphorus follow the same logic as layers. A low-energy pullet grower can be made by diluting with wheat bran, middlings or rice mill-feed, which suits Ghana. Breeders need higher vitamins, trace minerals and selenium for fertility and hatchability; no Ghana data were found. Always change nutrient values in proportion when energy density changes.

Competency standard

Range. Pig breeding herd and growing pigs; sheep; dairy and beef cattle and calves; horses. Evidence. Written programmes; oral questions; logbook.

Pigs: breeding, litter size and offspring survival

• Gestation. Restrict feed to 2.0-2.7 kg a day; a rule is 2.0-2.2 kg at 120 kg body weight, plus 0.2 kg for each extra 20 kg. Gestation lasts 114 days. Group-housed sows need 10-15% more. Feed is restricted by individual feeding, skip-a-day, fibre dilution or an electronic sow feeder. Below about 1.5 kg a day there is little effect on litter size. NRC 2012 for a gestating sow: copper 10 ppm, sodium 0.15%, vitamin A 4,000 IU/kg and total lysine 0.45-0.80% across the stages.
• Lactation. Feed 2.2-2.5 kg a day plus 0.5 kg per piglet. With 10 piglets this is 7.2-7.5 kg a day (derived). Intake rises when feed is wet, fed 2 or more times a day, pelleted, and with 15 hours of light. Sows drink 15-25 litres a day. NRC lactation: lysine 0.90-0.93%, calcium 0.68-0.71%, standardised-digestible phosphorus 0.34-0.36%, ME 3,300 kcal/kg, intake about 5.95-6.61 kg a day. AHDB advises three or more meals a day in heat and a more concentrated diet when intake drops. Cutting protein from 16-18% to 12-14% reduced intake, increased sow weight loss and lowered weaning weight.
• Sample sow ration (example, checked by script). Lactating sow: maize 68.95, soybean meal 22.00, wheat bran 6.00, limestone 0.85, dicalcium phosphate 1.25, salt 0.50, L-lysine HCl 0.15, premix 0.30 = 100 kg. Computed crude protein 16.06%, DE 3,371 kcal/kg, calcium 0.71%, available phosphorus 0.34%, lysine 0.93% (targets: lysine 0.90-0.93, calcium 0.68-0.71, DE 3,388). Premix for pigs is a pig premix: copper and zinc are high, so never give it to sheep.
• After weaning and flushing. Keep the lactation level for about a week, then 2.7 kg a day; a young sow that has just weaned a first litter gets 3.5-4 kg a day ("flushing"). Boars 2.3-3.0 kg a day in two meals; overfeeding cuts libido.
• Benchmarks. A field survey in Nigeria found 9.4 born alive and 8.1 weaned per litter, pre-weaning mortality of 14.0-17.4%, birth weight 1.5 kg and weaning weight 5.7-6.6 kg. The temperate benchmark was 9.8 born alive, 8.4 weaned and 14% pre-weaning mortality. Litter size depends on genetics and many things besides feed; feed's job is to keep the sow in good condition, to avoid fat sows and thin sows, and to avoid mycotoxins. Zearalenone causes swollen vulva in sows, embryonic death and smaller litters.
• Piglets. Colostrum within 24 hours. Creep feed from about 7 days, 20-25 g per litter per day at first, fresh and little and often. Creeping gives 10-15% heavier weaning weight when weaning is after 4 weeks. Weaning weight 4-7 kg. Wean at 3 weeks (at most 6) onto the same feed. Pelleted or crumbled feed is better than mash. Feeder space 6-7 cm per weaner. Weaner targets from 7 to 20 kg: daily gain 400 / 475 / 550 g (good / better / best), FCR 1.6 / 1.5 / 1.4, mortality 2.5% / 1.5% / 0.5%. Iron: sow milk is low in iron; a veterinarian gives the iron injection.
• Do not copy the lecture's bran recipes. The FUNAAB sample grower diet (47% maize, 34.7% wheat bran) has lysine 0.78% against 1.12% needed at 25-50 kg. It shows what happens when bran replaces maize.
• Pig limits (course caps). Wheat bran: weaners 5-10%, growers 15%, finishers 25%, gestation 30%; cassava peels 20% (hygienic, low cyanide); palm kernel meal 15%; cottonseed cake 10% for growers and none for sows (premature farrowing seen at 10% in gestating sows); copra cake 10%; brewers' grains 20%; molasses 5-10%; leucaena 5%.
• Salt and water. Removing salt is a common deficiency and signs appear within 3 days. Water: growing pigs drink 2-3 kg per kg of dry feed, and dissolved solids should be under 1,000 ppm. Salt poisoning with water shortage is a known risk, but the detail was not verified from an authority here. Always give free, clean water.

Sheep: ewes and lambs

The Virginia Tech tables are for large ewes (59-91 kg). The common Ghana breed is the small Djallonke, and no Ghana requirement table was found, so scale down and ask a vet or the CSIR-Animal Research Institute. Need rises from maintenance to late pregnancy to lactation. After lambing energy need rises 30% and protein 55%; two-thirds of lamb weight is gained in the last six weeks. For a 70 kg ewe, per day: maintenance TDN 0.68 kg / protein 0.11 kg; late pregnancy 1.27 / 0.21; early lactation with twins 1.81 / 0.42.

• Flushing. From 2 weeks before breeding to 2 weeks into breeding give 0.35-0.45 kg of grain or good pasture. This raises lambing percentage 10-20%. Most prenatal deaths happen in the first 25 days after breeding, linked to poor nutrition.
• Late pregnancy. Start 0.35-0.45 kg grain six weeks before lambing to prevent pregnancy toxaemia, low birth weight, weak lambs and low milk, without overfeeding. Lactating ewes: about 0.45 kg of grain per lamb nursing.
• Lamb creep. From 7 days, 18-20% crude protein, natural protein only, no urea; keep calcium:phosphorus at 2:1 using limestone at 1% to prevent urinary stones ("water belly").
• Water. Ewes on dry feed about 3.8 litres a day; nursing ewes about 5.7 litres.
• Ghana trial hints (summary only). Supplementing both dam and lamb raised pre-weaning daily gain by 62.7%. In dry-season Djallonke trials moringa hay and pigeon pea gave gains near 106 and 83 g a day.

Cattle: dairy cows, beef cattle and calves

The NASEM table below is for high-yielding cows (35-55 kg of milk a day, dry matter basis). Ghanaian smallholder dairy cows give far less (reports of 1.35 kg and 3.6 kg a day), so scale down: use the minimum-protein-by-milk-yield list and the concentrate rule.

Minimum dietary crude protein by milk yield: 27 kg a day 14.5%, 32 kg 15.0%, 36 kg 15.8%, 40 kg 16.5%. Cows eat about 3.0-4.1% of body weight in dry matter (derived).

• Fibre and starch. Total NDF at least 25-30% of dry matter; forage NDF at least 19-25%; starch at most 22-30% in lactating cows; rumen fibre digestion falls below pH 6.2.
• Dry period. Far-off is over 30 days before calving; close-up is under 30 days. Phosphorus above 0.5% may promote hypocalcaemia (milk fever).
• Water. Allow 5 cm of trough per cow and plenty of water. Dissolved salts under 1,000 mg/L are safe; 5,000-6,999 mg/L is not for pregnant or lactating cows.
• Local ingredients and limits. Molasses 10-20% of ration dry matter and over 20% lowers milk performance. Cottonseed cake up to 15% and not for calves or breeding stock. Brewers' grains up to 20-25% of the concentrate. Wheat bran: calves 10%, dairy 20%, beef 25%. Palm kernel meal: cap 30% of the diet for cattle (course judgement). Leucaena: over 30% of the diet long term is harmful, and without the right rumen bacteria it caused stillbirths. Forages: Guinea grass hay has 8.2% crude protein, elephant grass hay 9.2%, cowpea hay 13.5%, stylo hay 8.8%.
• Urea-molasses block. A cold-process example from Senegal: molasses 50%, urea 10%, salt 5%, calcium oxide 10%, bran 25%, set for about 15 hours and ready after 2 days; soft blocks risk toxicity because hardness controls intake. Toxicity is most common with poor roughage, hungry thin cattle and young calves; never feed urea with raw soybeans.
• Beef cattle. Water 0.06-0.20 L per kg of body weight a day. Minerals: calcium 0.40-1.00%, phosphorus 0.20-0.40%, copper 10 ppm (maximum 40), salt 0.2-0.5% of dry matter. Trace-mineral salt is over 90-95% salt and is not a complete mineral supplement. Cattle mineral mixes carry copper that sheep cannot take. A numeric dry matter intake for beef cattle and Ghana Sanga growth figures were not found.
• Calves. Colostrum: calves absorb antibodies only in the first 24 hours; good colostrum has IgG over 50 g/L. Milk or milk replacer for at least 6 weeks at 15-20% or more of birth weight a day; calves should double birth weight by 8 weeks. Free water from day 1 raised gain (0.31 vs 0.18 kg a day) and starter intake. A starter of 22-25% crude protein from the first week; wean when eating at least 1.4 kg of starter for 3 days and at least 6 weeks old, stepping milk down over at least 7 days. No wet forage for pre-weaned calves; no urea for young calves.

Horses

Ghana has few horses and no Ghana horse nutrition source was found, so this section is short. Roughage first. Forage at least 1.5-2% of body weight as dry matter; too little roughage causes colic and ulcers. Maintenance needs digestible energy 0.0333 × body weight in kg Mcal a day (a 500 kg horse needs 16.7 Mcal) and crude protein 630 g. Pregnant mares in the last 90 days and lactating mares need much more: a lactating mare 500 kg needs 30.6-31.7 Mcal and 1,468-1,535 g crude protein in the first 3 months. Diet crude protein: growing 14-16%, mature 8-10%, late pregnancy 10-11%, lactation 12-14%. Calcium:phosphorus about 1.5:1, never under 1:1. Concentrate per meal under 0.5% of body weight, no large concentrate meal within an hour of hard work, and change feed gradually over weeks.

Competency standard

Range. Small feed mixing, farm or shop scale. Evidence. Mixing record; test sheet; storage checklist.

Premixes and supplements

Vitamins and trace minerals are in only tiny amounts in maize and bran, and no Ghana source makes stable vitamin A, D and B12, so the premix is an import. Synthetic methionine and lysine are imports because maize and soya cannot supply enough (Feedipedia tables, Unit 1). Enzymes (phytase), toxin binders and choline are also imports; no Ghana producer was found.

• Buy to the species. A layer premix is not a pig premix is not a sheep mineral. Breeder guides give premix to a per-kg specification (broiler vitamin A 10,000-13,000 IU/kg; trace minerals as in Unit 3). Premix for sheep must be copper-free (Unit 4).
• Store premix to the supplier's advice and watch the "use by" date. An antioxidant helps stability. If feed is pelleted (heat treated), higher vitamin levels may be needed.
• Ghana prices (Jiji, 3-20 Sept to 8 Oct 2026, unit often not stated). Layer premix GH¢150-200; "2% layer premix" GH¢780 in Tema; DSM poultry premix GH¢600 in Ejisu; multi-purpose booster premix 2% GH¢85 in Adenta; methionine GH¢1,200 in Kumasi, unit not stated. Always ask for the weight and the inclusion rate before comparing.
• Registration. Whether a premix must be registered with Ghana FDA is not verified. An FDA guideline requires registration of veterinary nutritional or dietary supplements in tablets, capsules, sachets or powders. Ask the FDA.

Grinding and mixing equipment

On Jiji in October 2026: hammer mills GH¢4,000-29,000 (typically 7,000-18,500); feed mixers GH¢8,500-48,000; a hammer mill with mixer about GH¢16,000; a grinder plus mixer GH¢48,000; pellet machines GH¢8,500-32,000.

• Hammer mill. A screen with smaller holes makes finer feed. Grind to the right size: layers and chicks need a coarse mash (Unit 3); very fine feed lowers intake. Use hearing protection and a dust mask; guard the belts; stop the motor before clearing a jam. No sieve-hole size recommendation for pigs or cattle is given in the sources here: ask your supplier.
• Mixer. A drum or horizontal-ribbon mixer. The aim for mixing quality in a TMR (total mixed ration) mixer is a coefficient of variation of 5% or less; overfilling and dull knives cause variation; mix 3-5 minutes after the last ingredient; load roughage first and liquids last. Mixing time for a small drum mixer and the order for premix are not verified. Good practice: put the small amounts (premix, salt, methionine) into a few kg of maize or bran first, then add to the batch.
• Dust and cross-contamination. Clean the mill and the mixer between batches, especially between pig/poultry feed and sheep or horse feed, because of copper and ionophores (Units 3 and 4).
• Pelleting improves handling but heat can damage vitamins and phytase. Phytase survives if the hot pellet stays below about 87 °C. Pelleting is Level 3.

Simple quality tests

Record every test in your logbook.

Moulds and mycotoxins

• What they do. Aflatoxin harms the liver, causes abortion, is lethal to pigs at high levels and passes into milk as M1. Deoxynivalenol (DON) causes feed refusal and lower egg production and hits pigs hard. Zearalenone damages pig reproduction. Ochratoxin harms pig kidneys and poultry shells. Fumonisins cause lung fluid in pigs and brain damage in horses.
• Limits (USA guidance, not Ghana law). The FDA action levels for aflatoxin are 20 ppb for young animals, dairy and unknown uses; 100 ppb for breeding cattle, breeding swine and laying hens; 200 ppb for finishing pigs; 300 ppb for finishing beef cattle. Ghana's own feed aflatoxin limit was not found. Ghana launched a National Policy for Aflatoxin Control in Food and Feed on 12 October 2022.
• Controls. Sort and dry grain; avoid damaged and mouldy grain; store dry and cool; keep out pests. In trials in Brong-Ahafo, aflatoxin after 6 months averaged 82.9 ppb in polypropylene sacks but 48.9 ppb in hermetic bags. Triple-layer hermetic bags were tested at the University of Ghana. Aflasafe, a biocontrol product, cut aflatoxin by 98-100% in treated maize and groundnut in trials.
• Binders and inhibitors. Traders list toxin binders on Jiji. Their efficacy and regulation were not verified; a binder does not make bad grain safe.
• Safe moisture. The safe moisture for storing maize was not verified from a Ghana or FAO source; most extension advice is 13-14%. Ask the Ministry of Food and Agriculture extension officer.

Anti-nutritional factors and the course limits

"Course cap" is a conservative judgement made for this book so that no recipe lowers performance. Cocoa products can be made safe by boiling 1.5 hours, filtering and drying.

Storage

• Store bagged feed on pallets, off the floor and away from walls, in a dry, shaded, well-aired store, and use the oldest first ("first in, first out").
• Premix and rice bran and fish meal go rancid. Rice bran develops free fatty acid at about 1% per hour after milling in parboiled rice. Do not use copra cake after long storage. Copra meal should be under 12% moisture in a ventilated store. Cottonseed meal storage: moisture 5-11%, temperature 5-25 °C.
• Keep rats, birds and insects out; dispose of dead birds hygienically. Write the date on every bag.

Competency standard

Range. Poultry, pigs, sheep and cattle. Evidence. Budget; record sheets; oral questions.

Mortality-reduction protocols (feed side)

Poultry (chicks to layers).

1. Water first. Water access in the first hours drives feed intake. Water at 20-25 °C for chicks, low nipple pressure and extra pans or paper for the first days.
2. Right feed in the right form: coarse mash for pullets, crumbles for broiler starter.
3. Intermittent lighting for chicks (0-7 days, up to 14) may improve 7-day livability.
4. Hy-Line W-36 rearing: cumulative mortality 0.75% at week 1, 1.55% at week 3, 2.55% at week 17. Hy-Line lay livability 97.1% to 60 weeks. Lohmann Brown-Lite goal: livability 99.45% at week 30 and 96.85% at week 56.
5. Daily checks of health, temperature, ventilation, feed and water use, lighting and mortality; note the droppings.
6. Hygiene: protective clothing, boot disinfection, bulk feed delivery without the driver entering houses, keep wild birds and rodents out.
7. No mouldy feed. Mycotoxins (Unit 5).

Pigs.

1. Colostrum in the first 24 hours; warm farrowing area; iron by a veterinarian.
2. Creep feed from 7 days; wean at 3-4 weeks onto the same feed with no sudden change.
3. Keep the sow eating in lactation: wet feed, 2-3 meals, cool hours.
4. Free clean water; a sow can drink 15-25 L.
5. Do not cut protein too hard (Unit 4). Add vitamin E and selenium in lactation diets.
6. Never remove the salt. Watch for mycotoxins.

Sheep and cattle.

1. Colostrum for calves in the first 24 hours; lamb creep from 7 days; no urea for young animals.
2. Flush and feed late-pregnant ewes to avoid weak lambs and pregnancy toxaemia.
3. Introduce grain gradually to prevent acidosis.
4. Medicines in feed, for example some antibiotics or ionophores for lambs, are used only on a veterinarian's advice; no doses are given in this book and the Ghana withdrawal periods were not found.

Warning signs. Falling feed intake, falling water use, wet droppings, ruffled birds, thin sows, a drop in lay of 3-5% in a few days. A drop in feed or water use is the first sign of trouble. Call the veterinarian early.

Feed budgeting

Feed per animal. Use the tables:

• Layer: about 109 g a day in lay. 500 hens use 500 × 0.109 × 30 = 1,635 kg in 30 days, which is 32.7 bags of 50 kg (derived).
• Broiler to 42 days: 5,100 g each (Cobb 500). 1,000 broilers use 5,100 kg = 102 bags. At GH¢8.00 a kg (example; the low-authority farming guide lists GH¢380-420 per 50 kg bag, Source: Famrite Poultry Guide; summary only) feed costs GH¢40,800 (derived, example).
• Sow in lactation: 21 days at 7.2 kg (10 piglets) = 151 kg (derived).
• Pigs from birth to market: 265-340 kg total feed.
• Ewe: see Unit 4. Horses: forage 1.5-2% of body weight in dry matter, 8 kg of Guinea grass hay a day was the example.

Feed share of cost. Feed is about 70% of production cost in poultry and 50-60% of smallholder dairy costs. So a 5% cut in feed cost is worth more than a 5% cut in any other cost.

Budget steps. (1) Number of animals × days × kg per day. (2) Add 5% for waste (pig tables assume 5% wastage, Source: Merck Pig Requirements). (3) Convert to 50 kg bags. (4) Multiply by the cost per bag. (5) Add a reserve of two weeks. (6) Plan when prices are lowest: AGRA reports maize prices change over the year.

Records

Keep these every day, in a book or a spreadsheet:

• Daily: number alive; deaths (and what you saw); feed given (kg); water used; eggs collected; temperature.
• Weekly: body weight of a sample; feed per animal; uniformity; stock of feed bags in the store.
• Per batch of feed: date, recipe, batch size, ingredient lots, who mixed, test results.

Key calculations.

• Mortality % = deaths ÷ number started × 100. 18 deaths out of 600 pullets = 3.0% (example).
• Hen-day % = eggs ÷ hens alive that day × 100. 540 eggs from 600 hens = 90%. Compare with the breed curve in Unit 3.
• Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = kg feed ÷ kg gain (or kg eggs). A 42-day Cobb broiler: 5,100 g feed ÷ 3,278 g = 1.56. Hy-Line W-36 FCR is 1.81-1.94 kg feed per kg egg.
• Feed cost per egg. 109 g a day × GH¢7.60 per kg = GH¢0.83 a hen a day (example).

Use the numbers: if hen-day % falls 3 days in a row, check feed, water, light and signs of disease and call the vet.

Competency standard

Range. A small feed shop, mixing service or on-farm mill. Evidence. Business plan; price sheet; oral questions.

What the market looks like

• Feed is the biggest cost: about 70% of poultry production cost. Maize makes up 50-55% and soybeans about 30% of poultry feed.
• Feed mills in Ghana: De Heus (Koudijs) in Tema (90,000 tonnes a year), Flour Mills of Ghana, and Agricare in Kumasi. No Takoradi feed mill was found, which is a gap for local mixing and shops.
• A poultry sector master plan consultation was reported in February 2026. Avian influenza has led to movement bans and culls: check with the Veterinary Services before moving birds or feed.
• Rules: MoFA Animal Production Directorate issues e-permits for imports of feed and feed ingredients. Imported maize needs a permit. Selling compound feed: see the "law status" box. Ask the Veterinary Services Directorate, Ghana Standards Authority and Ghana FDA before you label or sell feed.

Location settings that give good returns

Business ideas and ingenuity

Prices to know (asking prices, Jiji, October 2026, negotiable). Nipple drinkers GH¢3-8; hammer mills GH¢4,000-29,000; feed mixers GH¢8,500-48,000; ready poultry feed GH¢300-320, bag size not stated. A crate of eggs was about GH¢50-55 in Koforidua and GH¢51.50 on average in Accra markets.

Money maths: pricing a bag (example)

Cost of ingredients for a 50 kg bag of pig grower from Unit 2: GH¢222.20. Add labour and electricity GH¢15 and bag and transport GH¢10: cost = 222.20 + 15 + 10 = GH¢247.20. Add 20% margin: price = 247.20 × 1.20 = GH¢296.64, or GH¢5.93 per kg (example). The gross profit is GH¢49.44 a bag. For 40 bags a month, GH¢1,977.60 (example). Compare your price per kg with the shop's price at the same bag weight; ready feed was listed at GH¢300-320 but the bag size was not stated.

Market yourself

• Use WhatsApp Business: a business profile with your hours and address, a catalogue, and automatic greeting and away messages.
• Set up a free Google Business Profile so people searching nearby find you; verification can be by phone, email, video call or a postcard that takes about 14 days.
• Put up a clear signboard with the prices by the bag, the animal each feed is for and your phone number.
• Referrals and demonstration. Offer a small bag for a farmer to try, keep records, and show before-and-after results (with permission).
• Be honest. Never claim a registration, a nutrient value or a test you do not hold. A false label can kill animals.

Accessibility

The Persons with Disability Act, 2006 (Act 715) is the law on disability rights; reports say public facilities still do not follow it fully. In your shop and business: keep a step-free path to the counter, put prices and animal names in large print and with pictures, offer to read labels aloud, use WhatsApp voice notes or video for customers who cannot read or have low vision, and write instructions for customers who are deaf. Training for staff with disabilities should be given in a way each person can follow; the Labour Act asks for training suited to the worker. Ask your District Assembly about help for disabled entrepreneurs: reports said the Assemblies' disability share would rise to 5% from 2026, but this was not verified for this book.

1. How do you turn 4.15 g of calcium a day into a percent of feed?
2. Why do ingredient tables list "as fed" and "dry matter"?
3. In a Pearson square, what do you subtract from what?
4. Why can a mix balanced by the Pearson square still be a bad feed?
5. What does a lower and upper limit stop a spreadsheet from doing?
6. Name two reasons a layer ration needs both fine and coarse calcium.
7. Why is pullet feed changed by body weight, not age?
8. How much feed does a sow with 10 piglets need each day in lactation?
9. Why must sheep never get pig or poultry feed?
10. Why must horses never get feed made for cattle or poultry?
11. Name two controls for aflatoxin.
12. How do you calculate hen-day percent?

Best next reads: Feedipedia (feedipedia.org), the datasheet for each ingredient; the Hy-Line, Lohmann, Ross and Cobb management guides for your strain; the Merck Veterinary Manual nutrition chapters; the Virginia Cooperative Extension "Feeding Sheep"; FUNAAB "Feeding Management of Pigs"; the CSIR-Animal Research Institute; the Veterinary Services Directorate.

What this module does not cover: laboratory analysis, NIR, pelleting plants, automatic feeders and software linear programming (Level 3); drug doses and withdrawal periods (ask a veterinarian); Ghana feed-mill registration and the Ghana poultry feed standard (not found); goat feeding; fish and snail feeds.

Every source used in this manual is listed, with links, in the Teacher Copy.