Yoghurt Making Level 2

About this module

Level 1 taught you to make yoghurt that is safe. Level 2 teaches you to make it the same every time, prove it is safe, make many kinds, and sell more of it.

Who it is for. People who have finished Yoghurt Making (Level 1), or who can show the same skills. National Proficiency II covers varied work, mostly routine, under limited supervision.

CTVET status. No CTVET yoghurt curriculum was found. This module is not a CTVET curriculum. It follows CTVET's format.

Bridge from Level 1: what you already know

Your hygiene routine and WHO's five keys
The boiling, alcohol and lactometer tests for fresh milk
The two yoghurt bacteria and why milk is heated to 85–95 °C
Making set, stirred, fruit, drinking and Greek yoghurt in a kitchen
Keeping yoghurt at 6 °C or below and the 14-day starting shelf life
The basic food label and the FDA food hygiene permit
Costing a cup and choosing a location

Level 1 did not cover measuring solids, fat and acid; a written food safety plan; bulk starters and culture problems; labneh, skyr-style, probiotic, plant-based and frozen yoghurts; FDA product registration and Ghana standards; or growing to bigger buyers. Level 2 covers all of these.

How the module works

Each unit has learning outcomes, performance criteria, the range and the evidence your assessor needs. You are judged Competent or Not Yet Competent. About 70% of the time is practical, following CTVET's Oil Palm programme split of about 30% school and 70% workplace.

Yoghurt around the world

Yoghurt is one of the world's oldest foods, and many countries have their own kind. This level teaches the main ones:

Kind	Where it is known	What makes it different
Set and stirred yoghurt	Worldwide	Set in the cup, or set in a vat and stirred
Greek or strained yoghurt	Greece, Turkey, the Middle East	Whey drained off; thick and high in protein
Labneh	The Middle East	Strained longer than Greek yoghurt, with salt
Chakka and shrikhand	India	Strained yoghurt; shrikhand is sweetened and flavoured
Skyr	Iceland	Skim milk, culture plus a little rennet, then strained
Dahi and lassi	India and Pakistan	Dahi is home-set curd; lassi is dahi blended with water, sweet, salted or with mango
Ayran and doogh	Turkey and Iran	Yoghurt, chilled water and salt; doogh often equal parts yoghurt and water
Kefir	The Caucasus, now worldwide	Milk fermented with "grains" of bacteria and yeasts at room temperature
Frozen yoghurt	Worldwide	Yoghurt mix frozen while air is whipped in
Plant-based "yoghurt"	Worldwide; tiger nut in Ghana	Fermented plant milk; needs thickeners

Small-scale dairying matters worldwide: smallholders produce over 80% of the milk in developing countries, and small dairies create about 4–17 jobs for every 100 litres of milk collected, processed and sold each day. Most small processors learn "by seeing, hearing and doing" with no formal training. This course is your formal training.

Unit 1 · Know your milk: solids, fat and acidity

At Level 1 you tested milk to reject bad milk. At Level 2 you measure milk so every batch comes out the same.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
1.1 Measure milk quality	measures density, acidity and pH, and records results
1.2 Standardise a mix	calculates and adds powder to reach a target solids level
1.3 Choose a milk supply	compares fresh, powder and UHT supplies on quality, price and season
1.4 Screen for antibiotics	explains residue risk and uses a test or a supplier declaration

Range. At least three milk sources; two standardised mixes. Evidence. Milk test records; standardisation calculations; supplier comparison.

What milk is made of

Milk is mostly water. The rest is the solids: fat, protein, milk sugar (lactose) and minerals. The solids other than fat are called solids-non-fat (SNF). East African dairy standards, often used as a guide in Africa, expect good raw cow milk to have at least about 3.5% fat, 3.2% protein and 8.5% SNF. Ghana's own raw-milk limits should be checked with the Ghana Standards Authority.

Why solids matter. More SNF gives firmer, thicker yoghurt with less whey on top, but fermentation takes a little longer. Yoghurt SNF is usually between 9% and 16%. The international standard asks for at least 2.7% milk protein in yoghurt.

Measuring tools

Test	What it tells you	Normal for fresh cow milk
Lactometer (density)	Added water lowers density; removed cream raises it	About 1.028–1.034 at 20 °C
pH	How sour	About 6.6–6.8
Titratable acidity	How much acid has built up	About 0.14–0.16% lactic acid
Clot on boiling, alcohol test	Whether milk is already souring	No clots or flakes

Titratable acidity, step by step

Put 9 mL of milk in a small clean beaker.
Add 3–5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
Slowly add 0.1 N sodium hydroxide from a burette or syringe, swirling, until a faint pink stays for 30 seconds.
Read how many mL you used.
% acid = mL of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide × 0.009 ÷ mL of milk × 100.

The same test works on yoghurt. The international standard asks for at least 0.6% lactic acid in yoghurt.

Sodium hydroxide burns skin and eyes. Wear gloves and eye protection, label the bottle, and keep it away from food. Never pipette it by mouth.

Acidity check

9 mL of fresh milk needed 1.6 mL of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. What is the acidity? Is the milk fresh?
9 g of yoghurt needed 7 mL. What is the acidity? Does it meet the 0.6% minimum?

Standardising: hitting a target every time

Small makers raise solids by adding skim milk powder. Factories also boil off 10–20% of the water or use filters. Skim milk powder is about 36% protein and 52% lactose.

Rule of thumb (worked out for this manual, not from a source): adding about 10 g of skim milk powder to 1 litre of milk raises the SNF by about 1 percentage point. Level 1's tip of adding about 50 g per litre therefore raises SNF by about 5 points.

Standardise a batch

Your fresh milk has 8.5% SNF. You want 12% SNF for a thick set yoghurt. How much skim milk powder do you add to 20 litres?

Fat

Fat gives a creamier, thicker yoghurt. One common labelling convention calls yoghurt with at least 3% fat simply "yoghurt", 0.5–3% "partially skimmed", and 0.5% or less "skimmed". The international standard keeps yoghurt fat below 15%. Whole milk powder is about 26–40% fat.

Choosing a milk supply

Supply	Strengths	Watch out for
Local fresh milk	Fresh taste; supports herders	Season, hygiene, added water, antibiotics
Whole milk powder	Same every time; stores dry	Price; needs safe water
Fat-filled powder	Cheaper	Vegetable fat, not milk fat: label honestly
UHT milk	Already heat-treated	Price; thinner gel unless powder is added

In Wa Municipality, about 69% of farmers' milk came in the rainy season and only 31% in the dry season; milking was by hand, often in the kraal, and milk passed through many middlemen. Fresh milk supply in Ghana is seasonal: plan for powder in the dry season.
In Ghana, whole milk powder was advertised in 25 kg bags at about GH¢2,000–2,500 and fat-filled powder at about GH¢1,400–1,600 in October 2026.
Studies of raw milk from Accra and Kumasi found Staphylococcus, Klebsiella, Yersinia and E. coli, because traders pooled milk and did not pasteurise it.
Goat milk gives a thinner yoghurt and sheep milk a thicker one.

UHT milk. Many small makers use UHT milk without heating it again, because it is already heat-treated, and add powder to make the gel firmer. This practice was not confirmed in the sources read for this manual. If you use it, test texture and pH on small batches first.

Antibiotic residues

Penicillin at levels as low as 0.005 mg per litre has slowed yoghurt making. Residues can be found with laboratory tests, quick test strips and inhibitor tests; farmers must keep to the "withdrawal period" after treating a cow. Factory plans test every tanker.

For a small maker: buy from farmers who sign a simple promise that no milk from treated cows is supplied, run a quick test if you can buy strips, and watch for batches that set slowly.

Milk laboratory

Test three milk samples (fresh, powder mix, UHT) for density, pH and acidity.
Standardise 10 litres of milk to 12% SNF with skim powder.
Make set yoghurt from the standardised milk and from plain milk; compare firmness and whey.

Supplier interview

Talk to one milk seller or herder. Ask about seasons, prices, milking hygiene and whether cows are treated. Write one page.

Unit 2 · A written food safety plan for yoghurt

At Level 1 you followed hygiene rules. At Level 2 you write them down, set limits, check them every batch and keep records.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
2.1 Apply GMP	writes and follows good manufacturing practice rules for the kitchen
2.2 Find critical control points	lists hazards and the critical steps that control them
2.3 Set limits and records	sets a limit, a check and an action for each critical step
2.4 Clean and sanitise	runs a written cleaning programme for pots, tanks and tools

Range. One product line (plain set or stirred yoghurt) in the training kitchen. Evidence. Written plan; one week of records; cleaning schedule.

GMP first, then HACCP

Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is the set of everyday habits that keep a food business clean: a toilet and handwashing point, clean working clothes, head covering, pest control, safe water and proper packaging. HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) is a system to find the steps where a hazard must be controlled, and to check those steps every time. FAO has guidance for using HACCP in small and less-developed businesses.

The seven HACCP principles

List the hazards (germs, chemicals, physical objects) at each step
Find the critical control points (CCPs)
Set a critical limit for each CCP
Decide how to monitor each CCP
Decide what to do when a limit is missed (corrective action)
Check the system works (verification)
Keep records

Critical control points in yoghurt

A published food safety study of set and stirred yoghurt found six CCPs for plain set yoghurt (raw milk receipt, non-dairy ingredients, milk storage, pasteurisation, fermentation and packaging), with one more for each extra ingredient in stirred yoghurt. A small maker's plan can look like this:

Step	Hazard	Critical limit	Check	If missed
Milk receipt	Germs, antibiotics, added water	Passes boiling, alcohol and lactometer tests; supplier promise	Test each delivery	Reject the milk
Water and powder	Dirty water; damp powder	Safe water; dry, in-date powder	Look and check dates	Do not use
Heat treatment	Surviving germs	85 °C for 30 min or 90–95 °C for 5 min	Thermometer and clock, recorded	Heat again or throw away
Fermentation	Slow souring lets germs grow	pH about 4.5 within the expected time	pH at the end	Throw away if it does not set
Fruit and other additions	Germs, mould, aflatoxin in nuts	Fruit cooked; fresh fruit pH 4.7 or lower; nuts from a trusted source	Record each batch	Do not add
Cold storage	Germs growing; too sour	0–6 °C	Fridge thermometer twice a day	Move stock; throw away if above limit too long
Packaging	Dirty cups; leaks; bits of glass or metal	New sealed cups; tight seals	Check each batch	Repack or throw away

Why fermentation is a CCP. In a laboratory study, Listeria and E. coli O157 did not grow in properly soured yoghurt and died faster at lower pH; the authors judged the risk "very low" when hygiene at the start is good. Slow souring, for example from antibiotics, removes that protection.

Nut and seed toppings. Groundnut and other nut purées are a CCP because of aflatoxin, a mould poison. Ghanaian groundnuts and maize have been found with aflatoxin. Buy clean, dry nuts from a trusted source and throw away mouldy or shrivelled ones.

Cleaning and sanitising programme

Factories clean pipes and tanks in place ("CIP") in a fixed order: rinse, hot alkaline wash, rinse, sometimes an acid wash, then hot water or sanitiser. The pre-rinse should be no hotter than about 55 °C so milk protein does not bake on. Your kitchen version:

Rinse with cold or lukewarm water straight after use.
Wash with hot water and detergent; scrub milk stone (white crust) off.
Rinse.
Once a week, use a food-safe acid cleaner to remove milk stone, then rinse.
Sanitise with boiling water, or a food-safe sanitiser at the strength on the label, then rinse if the label says so.
Air-dry upside down.

Leftover detergent can kill your starter culture. Rinse well.

Find the CCP

For each event, name the CCP and the corrective action:

The fridge read 11 °C this morning.
The thermometer showed only 72 °C when the 30 minutes ended.
A batch is still runny after 7 hours.

Run your plan

Write a GMP checklist and a HACCP table for plain stirred yoghurt.
Run it for five batches, filling in every record.
Run the weekly cleaning programme and record it.

Inspector's eye

Write the five records an FDA inspector would ask to see, and where you keep them.

Unit 3 · Cultures, fermentation control and fixing faults

The bacteria are your workers. Look after them and they give you the same yoghurt every day.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
3.1 Explain how the culture works	explains the teamwork between the two bacteria and their temperatures
3.2 Use and store cultures	uses direct-to-vat culture and prepares a bulk starter safely
3.3 Control fermentation and cooling	follows a time–temperature–pH profile and two-stage cooling
3.4 Fix faults	finds the cause of a fault and changes the method

Range. At least six batches with full records. Evidence. Fermentation curves (pH against time); fault log.

How the two bacteria help each other

Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down milk protein and releases amino acids that Streptococcus thermophilus needs. S. thermophilus in turn supplies substances that help L. bulgaricus grow. S. thermophilus grows best at about 35–42 °C and L. bulgaricus at about 40–44 °C, which is why yoghurt is kept at 42–43 °C. L. bulgaricus makes most of the acetaldehyde, the main "yoghurt" smell. Fermentation uses up only about 30% of the milk sugar.

Kinds of culture

Kind	How you use it	Notes
Direct-to-vat (DVS) freeze-dried	Tip straight into warm milk	Easiest; same result each time
Bulk starter	Grow culture in heated milk first, then add 10–20% to the main batch	Cheaper per litre but needs extra care
Back-slopping	Use some yoghurt from the last batch	Not advised (see below)

Freeze-dried cultures keep for more than 24 months below −18 °C, and can travel at up to about 20 °C for up to 10 days.
One 50-unit DVS sachet makes about 250 litres of yoghurt directly.
A bulk starter is made in skim milk heated to 90–95 °C for 30–45 minutes, then cooled and inoculated.

Why not back-slop? Small temperature errors let one bacterium take over, so the balance shifts batch by batch; yeast, mould and bacteriophages (viruses that kill culture bacteria) creep in; and leftover detergent can kill the culture. Traditional skyr is made by back-slopping, but for a business selling to the public, buy fresh culture.

Bacteriophages

Phages are viruses that attack culture bacteria. A phage attack makes batches slow or fail. Heating milk to 90–95 °C destroys phages; factories also rotate culture strains and keep starter rooms separate with filtered air. In a small kitchen: keep the culture area clean, never leave open yoghurt near the culture, and change culture brand if failures repeat.

The fermentation profile

Stage	Set yoghurt	Stirred yoghurt
Incubate	42–43 °C, about 3–3.5 hours; do not move in the last 2–2.5 hours	42–43 °C, about 4–5 hours
End pH	About 4.5	About 4.2–4.5
First cooling	To about 35 °C in 30 minutes, then 18–20 °C in 30–40 minutes	Break the gel gently; cool to 15–22 °C
Final cooling	To about 5 °C	To about 5 °C

Cooling is usually started at pH 4.7–4.3. Two-stage cooling (first below 20 °C, then to fridge temperature) gives thicker yoghurt with less whey.

Plot a curve. Measure pH every 30 minutes from the moment you add culture. Draw pH (up the side) against time (along the bottom). A healthy batch drops steadily from about 6.6 to 4.5. A flat start means weak culture, antibiotics or phage.

Fault-finding table

Fault	Likely causes	Fixes
Whey on top (syneresis)	Too little heat or solids; incubation too hot; set cups moved; rough handling; air in product	Heat 85–95 °C; raise SNF; handle gently; two-stage cooling; a little stabiliser
Too sour in the shop	Cooled late; warm cold chain; L. bulgaricus still working	Cool at pH 4.5–4.6; keep 4–6 °C
Grainy, sandy or rubbery	Too much or wrong stabiliser; too much protein powder	Reduce stabiliser or powder
Thin and weak	Too much stirring or pumping; low solids; antibiotics; weak culture	Gentle stirring; more SNF; test milk; fresh culture
Blown packs, yeasty taste	Yeast and mould after heating	Clean filling area; tight seals; heat-treated fruit
Slimy or ropy	Some culture strains make slime on purpose; contamination can too	Check the culture type; clean and sanitise. (Cause not confirmed in the sources read.)

Diagnose

A trainee's stirred yoghurt is thin and the pH curve stayed above 6 for the first two hours. Name three possible causes and the test you would do for each.

Six controlled batches

Make two batches with DVS culture and two with a bulk starter.
Make two batches with single-stage and two-stage cooling (overlap is fine).
Draw the pH curve for every batch.
Record each fault, its cause and your fix.

Culture storage plan

Write how you will buy, store, use and record your culture, including what to do in a power cut.

Unit 4 · Greek, labneh, skyr-style, high-protein and probiotic yoghurts

Strained and special yoghurts sell for more. They also waste more if you get the yield or the label wrong.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
4.1 Make Greek yoghurt at scale	strains a 20-litre batch, records yield and handles whey
4.2 Make labneh and skyr-style yoghurt	makes salted labneh and a skyr-style product
4.3 Make high-protein and low-fat yoghurt	adjusts milk and method for protein and fat targets
4.4 Make probiotic yoghurt	adds a probiotic culture and labels it honestly

Range. One batch of each product. Evidence. Yield records; product samples; labels.

Greek yoghurt at scale

Greek (strained) yoghurt is yoghurt with much of the whey removed. Methods:

Cloth bags (muslin), the traditional method; Indian chakka is hung for 12–18 hours.
Centrifuge separators and ultrafiltration in factories.

About 100 units of milk give 33 units of Greek yoghurt and 67 units of acid whey, so about 3 kg of milk per kg. The international standard says "concentrated" yoghurt such as Greek must have at least 5.6% protein, and whey may be removed only in concentrated types. Strained yoghurts range from about 3.3 to 11 g of protein per 100 g. In a laboratory study, 100 g of yoghurt gave about 30.5–33 g of strained yoghurt, and holding the yoghurt for 24 hours at 4 °C before straining raised the yield by about 8%.

Can you call it "Greek"? In the UK, since a 2013 court case, only yoghurt made in Greece may be called "Greek"; others must say "Greek-style". The US has no legal definition. In Ghana, check with the FDA. "Greek-style strained yoghurt" is the safe, honest name for a Ghanaian product.

Strain cold. Hang bags in the fridge or a cold room, not on a warm table. Long, warm straining lets yeast, mould and germs grow.

Greek yield and cost

You strain yoghurt made from 30 litres of milk. Milk and powder cost GH¢10 a litre, culture GH¢2 a litre, and gas and labour GH¢60 for the batch. How many kilograms of Greek yoghurt do you expect, and what is the cost per kilogram before packaging?

Acid whey: a cost or a product?

Acid whey contains water, lactic acid, some protein, milk sugar and cultures; its pH is about 4.4–4.6. It is a strong pollutant: it uses up the oxygen in streams that fish need. It is costly to get rid of. Uses include animal feed, fertiliser and biogas, and researchers are making fruit and probiotic drinks from it. Never pour it into drains or streams. Ask a pig or poultry farmer, or a composting group, to take it.

Labneh

Labneh is yoghurt strained longer than Greek yoghurt, with salt added; balls of labneh kept in oil can keep for a long time. The international standard recognises the name "Labneh".

Mix about 5–10 g of salt into 1 kg of plain yoghurt (your own recipe: test and record).
Strain in a cloth bag in the fridge for about 24 hours until it is as thick as soft cheese.
Pack in clean tubs, or roll into balls and cover with oil.
Label and keep cold.

Skyr-style yoghurt

Traditional Icelandic skyr is made from skim milk heated to 72–75 °C for 15–20 seconds, cooled to 37 °C, cultured with old skyr plus a little rennet, fermented about 5 hours, cooled to 18 °C and strained through cloth. One brand's label shows about 13 g protein per 100 g.

Training version: use skim milk heated as in Level 1 (85–95 °C), fresh culture, and strain like Greek yoghurt. Call it "skyr-style strained yoghurt", not "skyr", unless you follow the traditional method.

High-protein and low-fat yoghurt

Low-fat: start with skim milk or skim powder. Non-fat yoghurt loses whey more easily, so raise SNF and heat well.
High-protein: add skim milk powder, or strain. Too much powder makes a sandy texture.

Probiotic yoghurt

Probiotic yoghurts contain extra helpful bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium or Lactobacillus rhamnosus, added with the normal yoghurt pair.

If your label names an added bacterium, the international standard says there must be at least 1 million live cells per gram of it until the best-before date, and the yoghurt bacteria together at least 10 million per gram.
Health claims need evidence for the FDA. Do not write "cures" or "boosts immunity" unless you have approved evidence.
FanMilk launched NutriDay, a yoghurt with added zinc, in Ghana in 2021: fortified products need careful, approved claims.

Strained and special yoghurts

Make 20 litres of plain yoghurt and strain half into Greek yoghurt; weigh milk, yoghurt, Greek yoghurt and whey.
Make salted labneh from 2 kg of the rest.
Make a skim, high-protein skyr-style yoghurt.
Make a probiotic yoghurt with a named probiotic culture; write an honest label.

Whey partner

Find one farmer or composter near you who would take acid whey. Write their name, what they would use it for and how you would transport it.

Unit 5 · Drinking, fruit, plant-based and frozen yoghurts

Each new product reaches new customers. Each one also brings new hazards and new label rules.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
5.1 Make stable drinking yoghurt	makes a drinking yoghurt that does not separate
5.2 Make fruit preparations	makes and adds a cooked fruit preparation, including a local flavour
5.3 Make plant-based yoghurt	makes tiger nut "yoghurt" safely and names it correctly
5.4 Make frozen yoghurt	makes a frozen yoghurt with live cultures

Range. One batch of each product. Evidence. Batch records; samples; labels.

Drinking yoghurt that stays smooth

Drinking yoghurt is stirred yoghurt made thinner by blending or homogenising; it can be diluted with water, and stabilisers such as pectin, modified starch or CMC stop it separating. Under the international standard:

a "drink based on fermented milk" must contain at least 40% fermented milk;
added water must be declared and the % of fermented milk shown on the label.

Typical stabiliser levels are 0.1–0.5%; too much gives a rubbery or slimy feel. Plain yoghurt made correctly needs no stabiliser. FanMilk's Fanmaxx is a drinkable yoghurt in the Ghana market.

Fruit preparations

Rule	Detail
Amount	7–15% of the yoghurt, usually under 10%
Sugar in the preparation	About 50–55%
Stabiliser	0.3–0.5%
When to add	After fermentation; sugar above about 8% in the milk slows the culture
Safety	Cook the preparation; fresh fruit added after heating must be pH 4.7 or lower
Label	Name the main flavour; flavoured yoghurt may contain up to 50% non-dairy ingredients

Local flavours. Pineapple, mango, sobolo (hibiscus), baobab and dates can all be tried as cooked preparations. No tested Ghanaian recipe was found in the sources read, so trial small batches, measure pH and keep notes. Hibiscus is red in acid, which may suit yoghurt, but this was not confirmed. Emigoh (Yomi) added Pina Colada and Peach flavours in 2026 to mark 20 years: flavours keep customers interested.

How much sugar?

A UK survey of 921 yoghurts found median sugar of about 5 g per 100 g in natural and Greek yoghurt (mostly milk sugar) but about 12 g in fruit yoghurts, and fewer than 9% counted as "low sugar". WHO advises keeping added ("free") sugars below 10% of daily energy and ideally below 5%, about 25 g a day; milk's own lactose does not count. A low-sugar or unsweetened line is a good selling point.

Acid fruit. A small-dairy guide warns that very acid fruit such as lime and pineapple can curdle yoghurt, and that pawpaw and melon work more easily. Cook acid fruit into a preparation, add it to cold yoghurt, and test small batches first.

Colours and sweeteners

The international standard allows colours and sweeteners only in flavoured yoghurts, each within a limit, and a non-sugar sweetener must be named on the label ("sweetened with …"). Preservatives are not allowed in plain yoghurt.

Cultured drinks from around the world

Lassi (India): yoghurt blended with water, either sweet, salted with cumin, or with mango. A mango lassi uses Ghana's mangoes well.
Ayran (Turkey): yoghurt, chilled water and salt. Remember the 40% fermented-milk rule and "water added" on the label.
Kefir: milk fermented with 2–5% kefir grains at 20–25 °C for 12–24 hours, then strained; avoid aluminium, copper and zinc containers. Kefir contains yeasts as well as bacteria, and the international standard sets its own rules for it. Teach it as a separate product, made apart from your yoghurt so the yeasts do not spoil yoghurt batches.

Plant-based "yoghurt": tiger nut

Plant milks have no lactose, so makers often add sugar; plant protein does not set like milk protein, so starch, pectin, carob gum or agar is usually added. Commercial plant yoghurts had about 0.6–4.6 g of protein per 100 g (soy highest, coconut lowest) against about 5.1 g for dairy.

A Ghanaian study at Koforidua made tiger nut yoghurt like this:

Soak tiger nuts, then blend 500 g with 1 litre of warm water.
Sieve twice to get tiger nut milk.
Heat to 90 °C for 15 minutes.
Cool to 43 °C and add freeze-dried yoghurt culture.
Incubate at 43 °C for 6 hours.
The final pH was 4.42 (unsweetened) to 4.67 (sweetened).

Shelf life was not tested in that study, so start with a short shelf life and test it yourself.

Naming. In the European Union the word "yogurt" is kept for products made from animal milk. Call your product something like "fermented tiger nut drink" or "tiger nut cultured dessert", and check the name with the FDA before printing labels.

Nuts and aflatoxin. Use clean, dry, sorted tiger nuts and groundnuts. Mouldy nuts can carry aflatoxin.

A physically challenged farmer at Kwatire has built a tiger nut processing and export business: tiger nut products are an opportunity for inclusive businesses.

Frozen yoghurt

Frozen yoghurt typically has 8–14% milk solids, 15–17% sugar, a little fat and stabilisers. The mix is cultured, cooled to 0–4 °C, aged up to 4 hours, flavoured, then frozen while air is whipped in. Under the international standard it can be called "frozen yoghurt" only if the cultures can still be revived in reasonable numbers after thawing.

FanMilk's FanYogo frozen yoghurt is sold by street vendors, supermarkets and neighbourhood shops; FanMilk brought it back in 2023 after customers asked for it. Frozen products must stay frozen all the way to the buyer; Ghana's standard for ice cream is GS 64.

Five new products

Make a drinking yoghurt with and without 0.2% pectin; compare after 3 days.
Make a cooked pineapple preparation and a sobolo preparation; measure their pH.
Make tiger nut "yoghurt" following the Koforidua method.
Make 2 litres of frozen yoghurt.
Write labels for all five, following the rules above.

Flavour panel

Run a taste panel of ten people on three flavours. Record scores and comments.

Unit 6 · Standards, registration, labels and shelf life

To sell in shops and supermarkets, your yoghurt must be registered, correctly labelled and proven to last.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
6.1 Know the standards	names the Ghana and international standards that apply to yoghurt
6.2 Prepare for FDA registration	lists documents and costs for registering a product
6.3 Write a full label	writes a label that meets FDA and international rules
6.4 Set shelf life	runs a simple shelf-life test and sets a best-before date

Range. The trainee's own product range. Evidence. Registration checklist and costing; labels; shelf-life record.

Standards that apply

Standard	What it covers
GS 1121:2016	Ghana standard for yoghurts and products heat-treated after fermentation
GS 380:2003	Milk powders and cream powder
GS 1220:2018	UHT milk
GS 98:2015	Filled milk
GS 64:2015	Ice cream
GS ISO 707	Sampling milk and milk products
GS CAC/RCP 1	General principles of food hygiene
Codex CXS 243-2003	International standard for fermented milks, including yoghurt

The detailed limits inside GS 1121 were not visible in the catalogue; buy a copy from the Ghana Standards Authority before you register. Locally made products from an industrial process need the GSA certification mark.

FDA product registration

Your premises need the FDA food hygiene permit (Level 1). To sell in shops, each product must also be registered. The FDA checklist asks for:

The application form and a letter to the Chief Executive
Your business registration certificate
A certificate of analysis for each product and each variant (each flavour)
Evidence for any claim on the label
Samples (two units) and a model label
Bound documents and a soft copy

Fee (2023 schedule, per product, per year)	Micro	Small	Medium	Large
Registration of a locally made food product	GH¢100	GH¢200	GH¢300	GH¢500

Label evaluation before registration: GH¢200 per product per variant. The application must be completed within 3 months. Registration takes about 1–2 months after samples reach the laboratory. A premium service for low-risk products costs three times the regular fee and aims at 15 working days.

Old fee tables. The FDA's 2020 checklist still shows GH¢150, 450, 600 and 900 for three years, and other older FDA fee lists circulate online. The 2023 fee schedule (L.I. 2481) on the FDA's website is the newest found. Its table says "per annum"; ask the FDA whether you pay every year, and get a written quote before you pay.

Progressive Licensing Scheme. For micro and small businesses that employ one to five people directly involved in production. The FDA inspects against GMP and gives pink (starting), yellow (intermediate) or green (full compliance) certificates, so small makers can operate legally while they improve. Ask the FDA to classify your business before you pay; working from home does not by itself make you "cottage" or "micro".

Certificate of analysis. CSIR-Food Research Institute offers microbiological and chemical analysis. Ask them for a quote for yoghurt tests.

Cost your registration

You will register plain, pineapple and Greek yoghurt as a small-scale maker. Using the 2023 schedule, add up one year's registration and the label evaluation fees. What other cost must you get a quote for?

The full label

Keep every Level 1 label item (name, net quantity, ingredients, date made, best-before, batch number, country of origin, maker's name and address with GhanaPost GPS, storage instructions). Add:

The name "yoghurt" only if it meets the standard; "Greek-style" if thickened rather than strained
The main flavour in the name of flavoured products
For drinks: % fermented milk and "water added" if it was
"Sweetened with …" for any non-sugar sweetener
Fat content where leaving it out would mislead
"Keep refrigerated at 0–6 °C"
A barcode if supermarkets require one (GS1 Ghana)

Shelf-life testing

Well-made factory yoghurt keeps 21–30 days below 8 °C; a published food safety study gave mostly 14 days at 0–6 °C; the Practical Action brief says about 10 days. Do your own test:

Keep 10 cups from one batch at your normal fridge temperature.
On days 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 open one or two: check smell, taste, look (mould, gas, whey) and pH.
Your best-before date is the last day the yoghurt was still good, minus a few days for safety.
Send samples for a laboratory count when you register.

Registration pack

Fill in a mock registration checklist for one product.
Write a full label for three products.
Start a 28-day shelf-life test on one batch.

Visit or call

Call or visit the FDA Western Regional office or the GSA office. Ask about current fees and the GS 1121 standard. Write what you learned.

Unit 7 · Scale up, location, selling and marketing

Ghana's biggest yoghurt brands started small. They grew by keeping quality the same while selling to more people.

Competency standard

Learning outcome	Performance criteria — the trainee…
7.1 Plan equipment and space	lists equipment and layout for a 50–200 litre a day unit
7.2 Choose location and buyers	chooses a location and a buyer mix with reasons
7.3 Price for profit	sets prices for retail and wholesale with a margin
7.4 Market and include	writes a marketing plan including accessibility

Range. The trainee's own business plan. Evidence. Equipment list; costing; marketing plan.

Stories from Ghana

Emigoh (Yomi) started in a home kitchen with 5 staff in 2005, now employs over 70 and supplies more than 2,500 retailers; its new automated plant at Pantang more than triples capacity. It says quality control "from sourcing to production" is what makes it different.
Zeno's, started in 1993, calls itself Ghana's oldest existing yoghurt maker and its first commercial Greek yoghurt producer.
FanMilk sells through about 800 agents, 21 key distributors and nearly 7,000 vendors, who bring in over 80% of its revenue. Its revenue reached GH¢635.5 million in the first half of 2026.
Women's groups in Madina and Adenta who make yoghurt were trained in business and marketing with support from the Australian High Commission.

Equipment as you grow

Scale	Equipment
Kitchen (Level 1)	Pots, thermometer, cool box incubator, fridge
Small unit (Level 2)	50–100 litre double-jacketed pot or water bath; incubation cabinet or warm room; chest freezers or a cold room; stainless tables; pH meter; hand sealer
Small factory (Level 3)	Vat pasteuriser, homogeniser, cup filler and sealer, bulk starter tank, cold room

A home-made incubator from a small-dairy guide: an insulated box about 75 cm each side with 10 cm polystyrene walls, warmed by one 40 W bulb, holds 40–45 °C; a thermostatic water bath or large flasks also work. A domestic iron fixed on a drill stand can seal cup lids, and you should overfill packs by 2–4% so every pack meets its declared weight. Direct-to-vat culture sachets are often sized for vats of 500 litres or more, so small makers may split sachets carefully or keep a mother culture.

A liquid packing and sealing machine (up to 200 mL) was advertised in Ghana at about GH¢59,800. Chest freezers and solar chest freezers are options for cold storage.

Location settings that give good returns

A room you can keep clean, with smooth washable walls and floor, safe water and drainage
Steady power, or a solar or generator back-up for the fridge
Close to buyers: schools, hospitals, offices, lorry stations, markets and shops
Easy access for milk delivery and for sending out cold stock
Approved by your Assembly for food production

Who buys

Buyer	What they want
Shops and supermarkets	Registered product, barcode, steady supply, credit terms
Schools	Safe, affordable, small cups; big brands already run school milk drives
Vendors and kiosks	Cold stock, a good margin, regular delivery (the FanMilk model)
Gyms and health shoppers	Greek, high-protein, low-sugar (idea; no Takoradi source found)
Events and hotels	Drinking yoghurt and parfaits in bulk

People in Accra and Kumasi bought less raw fresh milk as their incomes rose, but more processed milk: packaged, branded, safe products win.

Wholesale or retail?

Your Greek yoghurt cup costs GH¢6 to make. You sell at GH¢12 retail. A shop wants 200 cups a week at GH¢9. A vendor wants 100 cups a week at GH¢8. Which deals give more profit per week, and what else should you think about?

Market yourself

Show your clean kitchen and your FDA permit: in a Ghana study, consumers judged dairy by visible hygiene.
Use a WhatsApp Business catalogue with photos and prices.
Be honest about sugar; health headlines about sugar in yoghurt reach your customers.
Free tastings at schools, churches and offices; offer a new flavour each month.

Accessibility

Persons with physical, visual and hearing impairments have been trained in yoghurt making in Ghana. At Lewuniyiri, groups including people with physical disabilities now sell yoghurt under their own brand. Sekondi-Takoradi Assembly supports PWD businesses. For your unit:

Work tables at seated height; tap and sink reachable from a wheelchair
Talking or large-display thermometers and scales; timers with sound and light
Colour and tactile marks on culture, sugar, salt and cleaning chemicals
Pair working at the hot stove and when lifting full pots
Written and picture steps for every process

Business plan

Draw the layout of a 100 litre a day unit.
List and cost the equipment.
Choose your buyers and set retail and wholesale prices.
Write a one-page marketing plan with an accessibility section.

Buyer visit

Visit one shop, one school and one vendor. Ask how much yoghurt they buy, at what price and what they want. Write one page.

Glossary

Term	Meaning
Acetaldehyde	The main aroma compound of yoghurt
Bacteriophage (phage)	A virus that kills culture bacteria
Bulk starter	Culture grown in milk first, then added to the main batch
CCP	Critical control point: a step where a hazard must be controlled
Certificate of analysis	A laboratory report on a product's tests
DVS	Direct-to-vat set culture, added straight to the milk
GMP	Good manufacturing practice
HACCP	Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
Labneh	Salted yoghurt strained thicker than Greek yoghurt
Probiotic	Extra helpful live bacteria added to yoghurt
SNF	Solids-non-fat: protein, milk sugar and minerals
Standardise	Adjust milk to a target fat or solids level
Syneresis	Whey separating out of yoghurt
Titratable acidity	Acid measured by titration, as % lactic acid

Logbook

Unit 1: milk test records; standardisation calculations; supplier comparison
Unit 2: written GMP and HACCP plan; one week of records; cleaning schedule
Unit 3: six batch records with pH curves; fault log; culture storage plan
Unit 4: yield records for Greek yoghurt; labneh, skyr-style and probiotic records and labels
Unit 5: drinking, fruit, tiger nut and frozen yoghurt records and labels; taste panel
Unit 6: registration checklist and costing; full labels; shelf-life record
Unit 7: layout; equipment list; prices; marketing plan; buyer visit report
Every homework, dated

Self-check quiz

What is SNF, and what does more SNF do to yoghurt?
Write the formula for titratable acidity.
What is the minimum acidity for yoghurt in the international standard?
Why is fresh milk supply in Ghana seasonal, and what is your plan for it?
Name four CCPs in yoghurt making.
Why should you not back-slop for a business?
Describe two-stage cooling and why it helps.
How much milk makes 1 kg of Greek yoghurt, and what must you do with the whey?
What must a probiotic yoghurt contain if its label names the probiotic?
What is the minimum fermented milk in a "drink based on fermented milk"?
Why should tiger nut yoghurt not just be called "yoghurt"?
List four documents needed to register a yoghurt product with the FDA.